Cultural resource assessment of promontories in western Oklahoma.

              , 2200.7 R434s No. 38 c.3
A CULTURAL RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
OF PROMONTORIES
IN WESTERN OKLAHOMA
August, 1993
By
Robert B. Bartlett
Leland C. Bement
Robert L. Brooks
The University of Oklahoma
Oklahoma Archeological Survey
Archeological Resource Survey Report No. 38
This publication, printed by the Oklahoma Geological Survey, is issued by The University of
Oklahoma and authorized by the Director of the Oklahoma Archeological Survey. This
publication is funded by the State Historic Preservation Office of the Oklahoma Historical Society
and the National Park Service.
A CULTURAL RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
OF PROMONTORIES
IN WESTERN OKLAHOMA
By
Robert B. Bartlett
Leland C. Bement
Robert L. Brooks
Project #40-92-70137.002
The University of Oklahoma
Oklahoma Archeological Survey
Archeological Resource Survey Report No. 38
August, 1993
-ii-
Publisher's address:
Oklahoma Archeological Survey
111 E. Chesapeake
Norman, OK 73019-0575
ISBN: 1-881346-30-7
©1993
by
Oklahoma Archeological Survey
Norman, Oklahoma 73019
Printed in the United States of America
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was made possible through a grant
from the Oklahoma Office of Historic Prserva-tion.
We are indebted to the landowners in the
project area for their cooperation and support
concerning the goals of this project. In par-ticular
we thank Wes Walker, Simpson Walker
Jr., Charles Edwards, Wes Matteson, Vera
Eversole, Harold Penner, Ed Penner, Jerry
Nicholson, Jerry Noble and Marvin Heufield.
Don Wyckoff provided comments on the draft,
Julieta Rachel prepared the illustrations, and
Martha Lopez assembled the final report.
-iii-
eligibility. Site 34MJ30 is a rock cairn which
may be actively used by members of the
Cheyenne Nation and should therefore be
protected. The artifact density present on the
surface of 34WD88 indicates this site may be
the result of intensive Late Prehistoric occupa-tions.
Systematic testing of this site to deter-mine
National Register status would be
recommended prior to disturbance by any ac-tivities
falling under Section 106. Though the
majority of the sites lack integrity, the survey
results indicate that potential National Register
sites do occur on promontories.
ABSTRACT
An intensive pedestrian survey of 1,975 acres
of promontory landforms in Major and Wood-ward
counties of northwestern Oklahoma
resulted in the location of 10 sites and 20
isolated find localities. The sites tend to be
located on promontories overlooking stream
valleys while the isolated finds tend to occur on
promontories affording a view of wide
floodplains along river valleys. Of the 10 sites
located by the survey, two are rock cairns and
eight are identified by lithic scatters. Two of
the ten sites, 34MJ30 and 34WD88, may war-rant
consideration for National Register
iv
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION 1
ENVIRONMENT •
Physiography
Geology
Soils
Climate
Vegetation
CULTURAL BACKGROUND •
Prehistoric Chronology for the Southern Plains
Previous Archeological Work Relating to Project Area
RESEARCH DESIGN
Project Area
Current Research on Promontories
Research Questions
METHODS AND FIELD TECHNIQUES •
PROMONlORY SURVEY RESULTS
Promontory Vistas Types
SITE DESCRIPTIONS
34MJ28.
34MJ29.
34MJ30.
34MJ31.
34WD88
34WD89
34WD90
34WD91
34WD92
34WD93
ISOLATED FIND DESCRIPTIONS
ARTIFACT DESCRIPTIONS
ASSESSMENT OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Research Question 1 •
Research Question 2 •
Research Question 3 .
Research Question 4 •
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES CITED
1
1
4
78
8
8
8
.12
.13
.13
.13
• 14
.15
• 17
.17
.22
.22
.23
.23
.25
.25
.27
.27
.28
.28
.29
.31
.31
34
.34
.36
.36
.36
.37
.39
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INTRODUCTION
This survey was conducted to better under-stand
the use of promontories by prehistoric
peoples in western Oklahoma and provide a
base-line study of the cultural significance of
this special feature of the landscape.
Promontories include such landforms as high
terraces along deeply incised river valleys,
knolls on upland ridge lines between drainage
basins, and buttes or erosional remnants of
surfaces associated with older landscapes.
Archaeological investigations have yielded
considerable information on prehistoric occupa-tions
in central and eastern Oklahoma. Inves-tigations
conducted in conjunction with large
reservoir construction projects have yielded the
bulk of our knowledge concerning these oc-cupations.
Very few projects of this large scale
have taken place in western Oklahoma, making
this region the part of the state least known
archaeologically (Wyckoff and Brooks 1983).
However, where systematic surveys have been
conducted in western Oklahoma, such as the
Wolf Creek and Quartermaster Creek
drainages, numerous sites are reported (Baugh
et al. 1984; Drass and Turner 1989).
Promontory landforms are a prevalent feature
in many areas of western Oklahoma, and very
little is currently known concerning the use of
these potential landmarks by prehistoric and
historic aboriginal peoples. Studies in other
areas have noted the prehistoric and historic
use of promontories for such purposes as hunt-ing
overlooks (Hughes 1991; Hofman and In-gbar
1988), signal posts (Turpin 1984, 1985),
and for ceremonial uses such as vision quests
(Graham and Graham 1986; Chartkoff 1983;
Conner 1982; Wedel 1961). The use of
promontory type land forms can be considered
in investigations of regional settlement patterns
(Judge 1973). While not presenting a com-prehensive
overview, these studies reveal the
significance of these landforms as a cultural
resource.
Today, promontory land forms are often
selected as sites for the construction of telecom-munication
and radar devices. Other uses in-clude
oil wells along with associated pipelines
and access roads. Large scale cultural resource
management projects do not typically involve
investigation of promontory landforms and
have resulted in a gap in our knowledge of the
cultural significance of promontories in Ok-lahoma.
This gap has hampered the treatment
of this resource in the Section 106 consultation
process. The results of this project have sup-plied
information regarding the prehistoric use
of this specialized setting that can aid in making
management decisions for those parts of the
state where such landforms occur.
An intensive pedestrian survey was conducted
of 1,975 acres of promontory land forms along
the Cimarron River in Major and Woodward
counties (Figure 1). The survey resulted in the
identification of 10 sites and 20 isolated finds.
ENVIRONMENT
Physiography
The survey area (Figure 2) is located in the
Cimarron Gypsum Hills region of Major and
Woodward counties in northwest Oklahoma
(Curtis andHam 1972:3). The area is charac-terized
by broken hills, buttes, and mesas
capped with thick layers of gypsum and
dolomite. This area lies along the eastern edge
of the transition zone between the tall and mixed
grass prairie of the Red Bed Plains to the east
and the short grass High Plains to the west.
The survey focused along a steep escarpment
marking the boundary between the Gypsum
Hills and the Red Bed Plains to the east (Morris
et al. 1976:3). This southeasterly trending es-carpment
features highly eroded buttes, mesas,
and bluffs rising some 87 meters above the flood
-1-
Nt
.. r-,. {,..\. Blaine Formation Escarpment '--' '....' .
•-. 1! II\\:\\:\\\\\\\\\\\\:\\\\\I Project Area
Woodward
o 5 10 mil••
I!!!!I!!!!~-!!!FI •~••• ii~;;;.,ij:f'
o 5 10 15 kil0m0_
Major
Figure 1. Project area along the Cimarron River in northwestern Oklahoma.
Cultural Resource Assessment o[ Promontories
D
Figure 2.
Western Sand Dune
Belts
High Plains
Central Redbed
Plains
• Western Redbed Plains ~ Cimarron Gypsum Hills
Western Sandstone
Hills
~~
Weatherford Gypsum Hills
o 10 20 30 miles l•• r'~Iiiiiiiiiiiit!!~II!!!!I'
o 20 30 kilomet81S
Ni
-3-
Physiographic provinces of Northwest Oklahoma (adapted from Curtis and Ham 1972).
Bartlett, Bement and Brooks
Numerous Quaternary age sand dunes averag-ing
2.5 to 4.5 meters high and occasionally
attaining heights of 12 meters occur along the
north terrace of the Cimarron River (Allgood
1968:36). These dunes and hummocks form a
strip approximately 1.5 to 3.2 kilometers wide
running parallel to the river. Some of these
dunes, such as those at Little Sahara State Park,
are active. Salt flats consisting of a hard, thick
crust deposited by salt springs along the Cimar-ron
River are found to the west of the project
area.
plain. The Cimarron River follows
southeasterly along the escarpment. The river
flows to within 400 to 1600 meters of the
escarpment in the western part of the survey
area, and from 1.6 to 4 kilometers of the
escarpment in the eastern part of the survey
area. From the eastern edge of the area sur-veyed,
the Cimarron River trends more to the
east and the escarpment trends to the south
through Blaine County.
The escarpment also marks the northern edge
of a divide between the Cimarron and North
Canadian rivers. The North Canadian River is
approximately 32 kilometers to the south.
Several small tributary streams of the Cimarron
River make up the major drainages of the
divide. Major streams located in the survey
area include Cheyenne, Barney, Griever, and
Main Creeks in Major County, and Sand,
Chimney, and Doe Creeks in Woodward Coun-ty
(Figure 3).
The highest elevations on the divide are along
the southern edge close to the North Canadian
River. From this point the streams flow north-easterly
toward the Cimarron. The stream val-leys
open onto wide floodplains bounded by
highly eroded bluffs that form the escarpment.
This is a function of the geology of the region
with the softer formations of the EI Reno group
being more erodible then the predominate Rush
Springs and Marlow sandstones through which
the North Canadian River flows. The dif-ference
in elevation between the Cimarron
River and the higher North Canadian River in
the counties of the survey is as much as 153
meters.
Elevations along the Cimarron River in the
survey area range from 457 meters amsl in the
western area to 384 meters amsl (above mean
sea level) in the eastern end. Elevations range
from 472 to 518 meters amsl on the ridge and
mesa tops. The rise in elevation is acute as the
escarpment rises abruptly from the floodplain.
Higher elevations of slightly more than 549
meters amsl occur along the divide between the
Cimarron and North Canadian rivers.
Geology
The regional geology of the survey area is
dominated by massive Upper Permian forma-tions
of the Guadalupean Series (Fay 1964).
These formations dip to the southwest and be-came
overlaid by Tertiary and Pleistocene
deposits. The formations are characterized by
interbedded sandstones, shales, and evaporites
formed by the repeated evaporation of an inland
sea (Johnson 1972). The subsequent erosion of
these formations has resulted in a landscape
characterized by steep buttes, ridgelines, and
projections. These land forms, combined with
prevailing mineralogy, have resulted in such
place names as the Glass Mountains and
Oklahoma's Painted Desert.
The formations exposed in the survey area
(Figure 4) are known as the El Reno Group
consisting of the Flower Pot Shale, Blaine For-mation,
and Dog Creek Shale (Fay 1964). The
EI Reno Group is overlaid by the Whitehorse
Group consisting of the Marlow Formation and
the Rush Springs Sandstone which are visible
in the uplands just south of the survey area.
The Flower Pot Shale Formation is the lowest
member of the group and is made up of reddish
shales with interbedded siltstones, dolomites
and sandstones (Fay 1964: 10). This formation
is highly visible along the edge of the escarp-ment
where up to 76 meters of the formation is
exposed and forms the base of the buttes and
mesas.
III -. _ 1
J
o 5 I- -I wi ,.
o 5 10
1I0 mileo
'115 kilolJl<t.crl
Woodward
N
t
Major
Figure 3. Drainages within the project area.
Bartlett, Bement and Brooks
5
I I
1000 ft.
amal a
I miles
Figure 4. Geologic formations in the survey area (adapted from Johnson, 19721.
The Flower Pot Shale is overlaid by the Blaine
Formation consisting of thick layers of gypsum
with interbedded shales and dolomites (Fay
1964:28). The thick beds of gypsum and
dolomites of this formation form the caprock of
the flat-topped buttes, mesas, and ridges in the
area. Much of the gypsum is water soluble,
resulting in the numerous sinkholes and caves
in the area. The lowest solution member of the
Blaine Formation is the Medicine Lodge Creek
Gypsum member which varies from 3.5 to 5
meters in thickness in the survey area (Fay
1964:153,163). This gypsum layer forms the
caprock along the northernmost edge of the
escarpment. Once this cap rock is dissolved, the
underlying Flower Pot Shale is easily eroded,
resulting in the steep walled formations making
up the escarpment. The Medicine Lodge Creek
member is overlaid by layers of shales, the
remnants of which are visible on the higher
knolls atop the ridges.
The uppermost EI Reno Group formation is
the Dog Creek Shale (Fay 1964:53). This
formation consists of reddish to bluish shales,
with thin beds of dolomites, sandstones, and
siltstones. This formation is visible in the upper
canyons and upland knolls in the survey area.
The base of the Marlow Formation becomes
visible in the upper reaches of the tributary
canyons. The sandstones and dolomites of this
formation create capped buttes visible south-west
of the survey area (Johnson 1972:21-22).
Lithic Sources. One of the more prevalent
artifacts present on most archeological sites are
lithics such as chipped stone tools and flake
debris. Many sites are documented on the
presence of lithic debitage resulting from the
production and maintenance of stone tools. For
this reason a brief discussion of the closest raw
material sources for northwestern Ok-lahoma,
knappable stone, is presented. All the
information in this section unless otherwise
referenced is derived from Banks's (1990:88-
101) study of Southern Plains lithic sources.
The closest source of knappable stone to the
project area is the Ogallala formation located
just west of the survey area. This formation is
composed of Tertiary outwash from the Rocky
Mountains. Gravels present in this formation
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Cultural Resource Assessment of Promontories
contain knappable quartzite with lesser amounts
of chert and petrified wood.
The Alibates Formation near Amarillo,
Texas, with its well known agatized dolomite
member was extensively used by prehistoric
people as a raw material for stone tools. The
source of this material lies along the Canadian
River in the Texas Panhandle about 250
kilometers to the west. Knappable cobbles of
Alibates also occur in gravel deposits along the
Canadian River (Wyckoff 1993).
Though more geographically widespread, the
Tecovas Formation occurs in the same general
area as the Alibates Formation. Tecovas con-tains
jasper and quartzite. The jasper occurs in
smaller sizes than the quartzite, and items
manufactured with this material are rarely
larger than eight centimeters.
To the north and west, and closer to the
project area, the geological lateral equivalent to
the Alibates Formation known as the Day Creek
Formation occurs. This formation contains a
dolomite member known as Day Creek chert
(Banks 1989:92). Much of this material is knap-pable
and outcrops, sometimes occurring as
caprock are known in Harper, Woodward, and
Woods counties.
The Dakota and Tesequite quartzite occur in
the Black Mesa region of the Oklahoma Pan-handle
about 350 kilometers from the project
area. These materials vary in knappability with
some outcrops producing more desirable
material than others (Saunders 1978:87). Also
occurring in this area are minor amounts of
basalt and a highly knappable opalite material.
They can occur locally as clasts in Cimarron
River gravel.
About 225 kilometers east of the project area
are the Flint Hills with numerous sources of
Florence and Wreford cherts (Banks 1989:96-
101). This area is well known for its abundance
of high quality stone and its numerous prehis-toric
quarry pits.
In addition to these sources, the gravels of the
Cimarron River produce minor amounts of
knappable cherts and quartzite (Saunders
1978:88). These gravels are a likely source of
many of the unidentified cherts and quartzites
present on sites in the project area.
Soils
The soils on the surveyed ridges and buttes are
part of the Vernon series (Allgood 1968; Nance
et al. 1960). These soils are shallow Aridisols
containing a high percentage of parent material
derived from the Permian shales and clays
(Allgood 1968:42). The soils on many of the
surveyed buttes and mesas are thin and heavily
mixed with the gypsum caprock. These soils
are referred to as the Vernon-Gypsum outcrop
complex (Allgood 1968:43). The upland ridges
and knolls have a thicker soil (up to 61 cen-timeters)
profile which includes a weakly
developed B horizon (Allgood 1968:42). The
Vernon series is the only soil type occurring on
the promontories within the project area.
Other soils in the area include the Weymouth
soil series which consists of Inceptisols as-sociated
with the Vernon series. The
Weymouth soils are moderately deep and made
up of colluvium from the ridges and buttes.
These soils are visible on the slopes and extend
from the ridge tops to the floodplain. The more
stable slopes are thought to be at least 10,000
years old (Nuze et al. 1987: 11).
Deep, well developed Alfisols of the Nobscot-
Pratt complex occur in the less dissected
uplands south and west of the project area.
These soils support a typical mixed-grass
prairie vegetation and scattered stands of black-jack
oak. Entisols of the Lincoln and Tivoli
series form on sand dunes along the Cimarron
River. These soils support grassy vegetation
but are highly susceptible to drought and wind
erosion.
Various Inceptisols and Mollisols associated
with alluvium deposits occur along the Cimarron
River and its tributaries. These soils support a
variety of grasses and stands of cottonwood and
willow. Some thin, clayey Aridisols are found on
the wide fans and floodplains on the tributary
streams. These are poor soils that support only
sparse vegetation.
-7-
Bartlett, Bement and Brooks
short and tall grasses. The tall grasses tend to
grow in bunches with the short grass species
forming a sod in between the bunches.
Climate
The general climate of the survey area is a
continental semi-arid regime affected by fluc-tuations
between periods of drought and periods
of rainfall. The annual average precipitation
recorded ffrom 1932 to 1962 is 71 centimeters
(Allgood et. al 1968:81). This precipitation
falls as both rain and snow. The majority falls
as rain between April and September. The rain
pattern is highly irregular and often torrential
in nature. Strong spring storms can develop
rapidly and result in localized heavy rains,
strong winds, and often in tornados. Strong
winds accompanied by high summer tempera-tures
are responsible for high evaporation rates
that leave soils arid and calcareous (Allgood
1968:78).
The temperature is variable and subject to
quick changes, particularly in winter when cold
air from the north can quickly blow into th~
area. The average temperatures range from 34
F. in January to 80 F. in July (Morris et al.
1976:7). Temperature extremes of -150 F. in
winter and to 105 F. in summer attest to the
wide temperature fluctuation in the area (Nance
et al. 1963: 1).
Vegetation
The escarpment of the Gypsum Hills marks
the eastern boundary of a mixed prairie ecotone
situated between the true tall-grass prairie of the
Red Bed Plains to the east and the short-grass
plains of the High Plains region to the west
(Bruner 1931: 175-180). This mixed prairie
association is largely a result of a change in soils
and fluctuating climate extremes. The nature
of the vegetation is a shared dominance of both
Bruner (1931: 177) lists the most important
dominants in this area of the mixed-prairie as
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) and little blues-tern
(Andropogan scoparius). Other grasses
common to this area of mixed prairie are
wheatgrass (Agropyron), junegrass (Keoleria
cristata), buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides),
and hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta).
The introduction of cattle in the late
nineteenth century along with recent agricul-tural
practices have undoubtably altered the
original vegetation pattern. For example, ex-tensive
stands of mesquite now grow along
terraces bordering the Cimarron River. How-ever,
due to their lack of accessibility, some of
the more isolated buttes retain stands of rela-tively
undisturbed natural vegetation.
Tree growth in the area is for the most part
restricted to stream courses. Here, willows
(Salix nigra) and western cottonwood (Populus
deltiodes) are common. Other species occur-ring
less frequently include white elm (Ulmus
americana), box elder (Acer negundo), hack-berry
(Celtis reticula), and western black wal-nut
(Juglans rupestris). Eastern red cedar
(Juniperus virginianai grow on the slopes of the
ridges and buttes.
The local vegetation existing on the top of the
promontories surveyed consists of mixed gras-ses
(Andropogan and Bouteloua), yucca (Yucca
glauca), mesquite (Prosopis julijlora), eastern
red cedar (Juniperus virginianay, stunted hack-berry
(Celtis reticula), sumac (Rhus sp.), and
prickl ypear cactus (Opuntia humifusa).
CULTURAL BACKGROUND
The following section presents a regional
prehistoric chronology for the Southern Plains
and subsequent discussion of prehistoric oc-cupations
in or near the project area.
Prehistoric Chronology for the
Southern Plains
The prehistoric cultural periods discussed here
is based on generally accepted cultural manifes-tations
presented in various overviews of
-8-
Cultural Resource Assessment o[ Promontories
Southern Plains prehistory (Bell 1984: Hofman
et al. 1989).
Paleoindian (12,000-8000 B.P.). The
Paleoindian stage contains the earliest known
human occupation in the southern Plains region.
These groups were hunter-gatherers whose
mobility patterns are thought to have covered
great distances. During this time the Southern
Plains witnessed a general warming and drying
trend as part of the climatic changes associated
the Late Wisconsin glacial period.
Earliest components are recognized by dis-tinctive
fluted bifaces referred to as Clovis and
Folsom. Clovis points are the earlier of the two
dating from 11,500 B.P. to 11,000 B.P. and
have been found in association with extinct
fauna such as mammoth and large bison. The
Domebo site in Caddo County, Oklahoma, is a
mammoth kill site with associated Clovis points
dating to around 11,220 B.P.(Leonhardy
1966a). Blackwater Draw in eastern New
Mexico also contains Clovis points in associa-tion
with mammoth (Hester et al. 1972). Sites
such as these and numerous surface finds of
Clovis points attest to the presence of people on
the Southern Plains since the late Pleistocene-
Early Holocene transition.
Folsom occupations occur on the Southern
Plains from 10,900 to 10,200 B.P. Acontinua-tion
of the hunting of large fauna is evidenced
during Folsom times by sites such as Libscomb
and Blackwater Draw (Hofman et al. 1991;
Hester et al. 1972). Point distributions and
evidence from Folsom campsites indicate a
mobil life style continuing to predominate
during this time on the southern Plains.
By late Paleoindian times more diversity in
point styles develops. The major cultural
manifestation on the Southern Plains during this
time is associated with Plainview points. These
people also hunted bison as evidenced by kill
sites at the Plainview site (Sellards and Evans
1945)and Lubbock Lake (Johnson and Holliday
1980).
The latest Paleoindian stage is represented by
various cultural manifestations associated with
several lanceolate point styles. These point
styles associated with this stage include Scot-tsbluff,
Firstview, Agate Basin, and Hell Gap
(Frison 1991).
Archaic (7500-2000 B.P.). The Archaic
period on the Southern Plains entails a large
expanse of time from about 7500 B.P. to 2000
B.P. This period is commonly subdivided into
early, middle, and late Archaic. The environ-ment
experienced a continued drying trend cul-minating
with the Altithermal during the middle
Archaic period 5000 to 6,000 years ago. This
period of time represents the most arid condi-tions
since the onset of the Holocene period and
resulted in wide spread erosion.
In spite of the large time frame, the plains
Archaic period is little understood on the Plains.
Numerous Archaic sites are documented on the
Southern Plains, but little detailed information
is discernible. To date, the evidence indicates
that hunter-gatherer lifestyles predominated.
During the Archaic period, the archeological
evidence indicates an increasing reliance on
local plant and animal resources coupled with
mobility patterns keyed to seasonal fluctuations
(Hofman 1989:45-46). An increased use of
local resources is evident in lithic assemblages
which are made of locally available cherts and
quartzites. Tools associated with plant process-ing
increase and the majority of dart points are
stemmedor notched for hafting. The hinderance
to a more detailed study of the Archaic period
is the lack of stratified sites offering datable
contexts.
The Gore Pit site in southwestern Oklahoma
is the one of the few Archaic sites on the
Southern Plains to yield good contexts with
dates. The site contained a burial dated around
7100 B.P. as well as producing burned rock
features and Archaic tool assemblages consist-ing
of dart points, gouges, granding stones and
scrapers (Hammatt 1976). Investigations at the
Summers site (34GTI2) have produced an as-semblage
of corner-notched points, gravers,
scrapers, and scraper-planes dating to 2,770 +
150B.P. (Leonhardy 1966b). Features present
on the site include a roasting pit with associated
bison bone, a hearth and possible storage pit
(Leonhardy 1966b:20). The features and ar-
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Banlett, Bement and Brooks
Woodland occupations in western Oklahoma
are also noted in areas where intensive survey
has been conducted (Ferring et al. 1976;
Saunders 1976:80-81; Baugh et al. 1984:175-
182). Thurmond (1990b) has recorded 41 late
Archaic/Early Woodland sites along the
Dempsey divide. These sites tend to be located
along tributary streams to the Washita River and
produce surface finds of comer-notched dart
points, arrow points and ceramic sherds (Thur-mond
1990b:141-149). The Swift Horse site
(34RM50 1) located in the Black Kettle National
Grasslands is one location that has provided a
wealth of information on the Woodland occupa-tion
in western Oklahoma (Briscoe 1987). This
site contains ceramics, arrow and dart points,
end scrapers , manos, and grinding basins. No
evidence of horticulture was recovered from
this site and it is thought to represent a foraging
subsistence based on local resources (Brisco
1987:83-84).
tifacts recovered from these sites attest to the
greater diversification in subsistence.
The Calf Creek complex is becoming a widely
recognized middle Archaic occupation on the
southern Plains. A date of 5730 + 160 B.P.
has been obtained for this complex (Wyckoff
and Woodward 1988). This complex is iden-tified
by well made, large, basally-notched
bifaces. Though the majority of the sites are
identified by surface finds, their distribution
attests to occupations from central Texas
through western, central, and eastern Ok-lahoma.
A late Archaic bison kill site dating to 1400-
1500 B.P. with corner-notched points is
reported from west central Oklahoma (Bement
and Buehler 1992). Surveys conducted in
western Oklahoma have noted Archaic sites and
the presence of comer-notched dart point styles
(Thurmond 1990b; Baugh et.al1984: 176-177).
Surveys in Roger Mills and Beckham counties
indicate an extensive use of this area in the late
Archaic early Woodland periods (Thurmond
1990b; Baugh et al. 1984:176-177).
Woodland (2000-1000 B.P.). Regionall y,
this period witnessed the introduction of
ceramics and the use of the bow and arrow. The
ceramic shapes are typically globular to conical
in shape and the ceramics are decorated by
cordmarks. Hunting and gathering continues
during this time, however evidence indicates
that subsistence is supplemented by some hor-ticulture.
The recovery of tools related to hor-ticulture
indicates the adoption or development
of horticulture during this time.
The more intensive and best defined occupa-tions
dating to this time occur in eastern and
north-central Oklahoma (Vehik 1984). The
Pruitt site in central Oklahoma contains Wood-land-
related artifacts including cordmarked
ceramics, comer-notched arrow points, drills,
and endscrapers (Barr 1966:89-90). Many
other sites with well documented Woodland
occupations are located along the eastern mar-gin
of the plains in the Cross Timbers region
(Barr 1966; Drass 1979,1984; Neel 1984).
Plains Village (A.D. 800-1500). The Plains
Village tradition on the Southern Plains began
by about 850 B.P. This period is represented
by numerous sites over the Southern Plains and
consequently is better studied than earlier time
periods (Brooks 1989). Horticulture became an
increasingly more important part of the subsis-tence
base during this time accompanied by
increasing sedentism. Archeological evidence
indicates that small hamlets of square houses
constructed of wattle and daub, and numerous
storage pits were established along the major
rivers during this time.
The abundance of archeological remains at-tributed
to the Southern Plains Village tradition
has resulted in the naming of many phases,
variants, and complexes (Brooks 1989:71).
These groups include the Custer, Washita River,
and Antelope Creek phases, as well as the Zimms,
Henrietta, and Buried City complexes.
The Custer Phase (A.D. 800 to A.D. 1100)
represents the earliest of the Plains Village
occupations in western Oklahoma (Hofman
1984). The core area of occupation is centered
along the Washita River (Brooks 1989:72; Hof-man
1984:288). Sites are generally small ham-lets
with square houses. Numerous storage pits
are common and the material culture contains
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Cultural Resource Assessment o[ Promontories
arrow points, various scraper types, diamond-shaped
alternately beveled knives, plain and
cordmarked pottery, manos, grinding basins,
celts and elbow pipes. Numerous bone tools
manufactured from bison and deer bone are also
present including bison scapula hoes, and bison
tibia digging tip sticks.
The Washita River Phase (A.D. 1000to A.D.
14(0) follows the Custer Phase and is also
centered along the Washita River (Bell
1984:308). Over 200 sites have been recorded
for this phase in southern and western Ok-lahoma
(Brooks 1989:78). An increase in vil-lage
size accompanied by intensified agriculture
involving com is indicated by the archeological
evidence. Hamlets range in size from 5 to 20
houses square to rectangular in shape. Middens
present on these sites have provided an insight
into the diet of the village occupants. Wild
plant foods, bison, deer, birds, turtles and fish
remains have been identified.
To the west, and contemporaneous with the
Washita River Phase, is the Antelope Creek
Phase. This is centered in the northern Texas
Panhandle and is represented by distinctive
architecture consisting of houses with vertically
placed stone slab foundations in single and
contiguous units (Lintz 1984). Drass and
Turner (1989:58-60) have documented
numerous late prehistoric sites in the Wolf
Creek drainage, all of which are attributed to
Antelope Creek Phase occupations.
The Zimms and Buried City complexes are
also roughly contemporaneous with Antelope
Creek and Washita River phases (Brooks
1989:83-85). The Buried City complex is lo-cated
in the northern Texas Panhandle and may
be a variant of the Antelope Creek phase
(Brooks 1989:80). Architecture and stone tool
assemblages are very similar to Antelope
Creek, however the ceramics differ significant-ly.
The Zimms Complex in western Oklahoma
is identified by isolated house structures bearing
a marked similarity to Antelope Creek architec-ture.
The material culture however bears
strong affiliations with the Washita River
Phase.
Protohistoric (A.D.1500 - A.D.1750). The
Protohistoric period witnessed the initial con-tact
of Southern Plains natives with Europeans.
This contact had profound effects on the culture
of people living on the plains. European dis-eases
devastated the indigenous populations.
Increasing trade is archeologically evidenced
during this time involved European goods and
bison products. Fortified villages are known,
possibly relating to an increase in warfare and
raiding. The introduction of the horse to the
Plains during the latter part of this period al-lowed
for greater mobility and no doubt played
an important role in trade and warfare.
Two complexes are identified in western
Oklahoma for the protohistoric. These are the
Edwards (1500-1650) and Wheeler (1650-
1725) complexes (Hofman 1984:347-362).
The complexes are best known from sites south
of the survey area in Beckham and Roger Mills
counties. Both complexes depended heavily
upon bison for subsistence and trade. An ap-parent
decrease in horticulture is indicated by
fewer recovered tools associated with horticul-ture.
Fortified village sites appear during this
time (Hofman 1984).
The maindifference between the Edwards and
Wheeler complexes is represented in lithic as-semblages.
The Edwards site (34BK2) lithic
materials are derived chiefly from sources to the
west, whereas the lithic assemblages from the
Wheeler phase sites are dominated by materials
from Kay County in north-central Oklahoma
(Hofman 1984:356). The Wheeler Phase sites
also contain large distinctive endscrapers in-dicative
of hide processing. An increase in
European trade items is noted among Wheeler
phase sites.
The Edwards complex had ties to the south-west
as evidenced by the presence of southwest
pottery, and turquoise on Edwards complex
sites. Trade of bison products for horticultural
goods probably occurred through these con-tacts.
Historic (A.D.1750 - A.D.1890). The his-toric
period is characterized by an influx of
European settlers into the area. Much of Ok-lahoma
during this time was set aside for the
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Bartlett, Bement and Brooks
Wyckoff et al. 1990). This site may represent
one of the earliest human occupations known
for North America.
relocation of Native Americans from other parts
of the United States. During the early part of
this period northwestern Oklahoma was oc-cupied
by the Cheyenne and Comanche tribes.
The Cheyenne tribe has been in western Ok-lahoma
since the 1860s. Reservations were
established in the area of Camp Supply and Fort
Reno and from 1869 to 1876 most of the
Cheyenne nation was restricted to these reser-vations.
A tributary stream to the Cimarron
River near the present day town of Freedom was
a favored camping area during this time. In fact
in 1873 the majority of the Cheyenne nation was
camped at this location (Moore 1987: 199,240).
Eventually many of the Cheyenne bands were
settled through allotments along the North
Canadian River near the present day towns of
Watonga, Calumet, Seiling, Clinton, and El
Reno.
An area known as the Cherokee Outlet en-compassing
much of northwestern Oklahoma
was also established in the nineteenth century.
The area was leased for cattle grazing in the
later nineteenth century which eventually led to
the establishment of large cattle ranches. The
area was officially opened for settlement in
1893.
Previous Archeological Work Relating
to Project Area
The following discussion relates to what is
presently known about the prehistoric occupa-tions
in or near the project area. At the initia-tion
of the survey an examination of the site files
of the Oklahoma Archeological Survey listed 28
sites in Major County, and 87 sites in Wood-ward
County.
One of the more intriguing sites near the
project area is the Burnham site (34W073) in
Woods County. An intensive, well-controlled
investigation of this site has produced lithic
artifacts in association with extinct big-homed
bison and may possibly indicate a human
presence in this area sometime between 26,800
and 11,500 years ago (Wyckoff et al. 1991;
Evidence of Paleoindian presence near the
project area is documented by Clovis point
distributions in Oklahoma (Hofman and Wyck-off
1991). The distribution reveals a concentra-tion
of points in the western part of the state
(Hofman and Wyckoff 1991). The majority of
documented Folsom points in Oklahoma
likewise occur in the western part of the state,
including isolated finds in Woods, Harper and
Major counties, Oklahoma (Hofman 1992).
The Waugh site (34HP45) containing the
remains Bison antiquus and associated Folsom
points is located in Harper County (Hofman et
al. 1991). Several Plainview points from the
Nall site in the Oklahoma Panhandle attest to
later Paleoindian occupations near the survey
area (Baker et al. 1957). Intensive surveys of
the Washita River drainage in western Ok-lahoma
have also produced evidence of late
Paleoindian occupations (Thurmond 1990a).
Few Archaic sites are known in the survey
area. Archaic style points have been reported
in association with lithic workshops near the
survey area (Ferring et al. 1976:60; Lopez and
Smith 1979:708,711). A few archaic occupa-tions
are noted to the south in the Quartermaster
Creek drainage (Baugh et al. 1984).
Sites containing Woodland artifacts including
cord marked pottery are reported near the sur-vey
area (Ferring et al. 1976:78,81). The
presence of possible Woodland village sites in
the Quartermaster Creek drainage is noted
(Baugh et al. 1984: 175-182) by the presence of
cord marked pottery sherds, dart points and
comer-notched arrow points. The Swift Horse
site (34RM501) in the Black Kettle National
Grasslands is an extensive Woodland site south
of the survey area (Briscoe 1987). Woodland
occupations to the west are known from the
recovery of Woodland ceramics and dart points
along terraces along Carrizo Creek in Cimarron
County (Saunders 1976:80-81).
The Plains Village period is better docu-mented
in the survey area with sites documented
in Woodward County. A house structure was
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Cultural Resource Assessment of Promontories
uncovered during excavations at the Hedding
site (34WD2) (Shaeffer 1962:131-149.)
Though the house structure is similar to those
identified with the Zimms complex to the south,
the assemblage of recovered artifacts indicate a
close relation to the Antelope Creek phase to
the west (Drass 1989:2-4).
A multiple burial (34WDI2) containing at
least 10 individuals is also reported near the
survey area (Kay County Chapter 1963). Ar-tifacts
associated with some of the burials in-clude
Olivella shell beads, a turquoise pendant,
microline pendant, a triangular Fresno type
projectile point, and a bison tibia digging-stick
tip. The artifacts recovered with these burials
suggest they relate to Plains Village occupations
to the west, with trade connections to the south-west,
most probably Antelope Creek phase.
The Fairview burial (34MJll), probably
relating to the Protohistoric period was
recovered very close to the survey area. As-sociations
with the burial included olivella shell
beads, a turquoise pendant, and 307 turquoise
beads (Howard and Brown 1973:215). The
Traders Creek site in Woodward County
(34WD5) mayrepresent a Protohistoric occupa-tion
near the survey area (Buehler 1991). The
presence of the Fairview burial along with
evidence of trade ties between the southwestand
Protohistoric sites in Oklahoma would indicate
a use of the area during this time possibly as a
trade route. Historic sites known near the sur-vey
area include dug outs and salt works (Fer-ring
et al. 1976).
RESEARCH DESIGN
Project Area
For the purpose of this project, that portion
of western Oklahoma containing Harper,
Woodward, Woods, Dewey, and Major coun-ties
provided the initial pool of promontories for
inspection. Of particular interest were the high
bluff lines overlooking the Cimarron River in
Major and Woodward counties. This region of
the state was selected based on four criteria:
1) large number of promontories with
views of a variety of landscapes (expan-ses
of plains, river valleys and drain-ways);
2) likelihood of use by prehistoric in-habitants
in the hunting of bison or
other prairie animals;
3) proximity of these promontories to
known cultural resources ranging in
age from Paleoindian to historic times;
and
4) nearness of additional promontories that
might have been used in inter-promon-tory
communication systems.
Current Research on Promontories
To aid in the recovery of pertinent and
meaningful data related to prominent questions
concerning the use of promontories, a literature
search was conducted. The following
categories of information were gathered.
Promontories, vistas on the landscape, served
as:
• landmarks for travelers,
• game or enemy lookouts for resident
groups (Hughes 1991:21; Hofman and In-gbar
1988),
• spiritual contacts for vision quests (Conner
1982, Graham and Graham 1986; Wedel
1961),
• information stations in aboriginal com-munication
systems (Turpin 1984, 1985),
and
• lithic procurement sites.
Although wind-swept and deflated, these
natural highs were probably unchanged
throughout the late Pleistocene.
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Bartlett, Bement and Brooks
ritual, or warfare purposes). Through the
repeated use of an area that cultural material
accumulates to a level that is archeologically
visible. Repeated use also indicates that the
locality was successfully employed in the
prehistoric system.
Ephemeral uses including game lookouts,
vision quests, and signal fires left little behind
for archeologists to find (Bement 1987; Kehoe
1960; Turpin 1984), thus making promontory
landforms difficult to identify and manage as a
cultural resource. Yet such stations are impor-tant
for understanding communication systems
and hunting strategies of prehistoric groups.
Promontories rarely are isolated on the
landscape but rather as projections along ridges
or bluffs. Panoramic views from such locations
are the key variable for inclusion in this study.
Other governing factors probably considered by
prehistoric peoples include access to the
promontory from the lower elevations, and ease
with which information could be signalled from
the lookout to the rest of the group. Such key
variables were particularly important to hunting
groups using elevated lookouts for spotting
game and planning procurement strategies. A
group on top of a high bluff line with no timely
way down into the valley below where a herd
of bison has been spotted stood little chance for
procurement success. This be alleviated by a
lone observer on the promontory signalling to
the rest of the group stationed below or by use
of a promontory with easy access to the lower
elevations.
Game trails often follow the rims of buttes
and traverse saddles connecting two drainage
systems. Monitoring and hunting game along
these trails may also be an activity have been
associated with the use of promontories. This
type of activity may have been carried out in
conjunction with hunting activities on the plain
below, or specifically with upland hunting.
When used in hunting strategies, the promon-tory
is an integral part of a system. Once the
targeted resource is identified, the procurement
strategy is implemented. As indicated by cycli-cal
use of kill strategies, certain promontories
are likely to be used repeatedly. Such repeated
and redundant behavior leads to the buildup of
residue that can be identified by archeologists.
One-time use of an area often leaves little that
is archeologically detectable. However, it is
the repetitiveness of such a system that is im-portant
in this study (whether it be for hunting,
Other uses of upland areas, often in associa-tion
with promontories, included the procure-ment
of plant resources for consumption and for
use in fabricating tools and clothing. The
upland setting often supports more xeric
adapted species of plants and animals. Among
the plants are cacti and yucca species that were
of economic importance to prehistoric societies
(Tainter 1979).
Survey of upland areas in the Southern Plains
has identified scattered remains attributed to
plant collecting and hunting activities. Often
these residues include isolated occurrences of
unifaces, utilized flakes, bifaces, choppers and
projectile points (Saunders 1992). Thus, cul-tural
materials identified on promontories may
be attributable to ancillary tasks conducted by
persons utilizing the promontory, or may be the
result of procurement targeting upland areas for
special plant and animal resources. Distin-guishing
between these various uses of promon-tory
areas are difficult and must rely on the
analysis of artifact classes recovered during the
survey.
The portion of a promontory used can vary
according to the purpose. When employed as
a lookout station, use is not necessarily
restricted to the top. Often a protected locality
just below the rim, such as a caprock overhang,
was selected (Bement 1987). These positions
offered protection from the elements as well as
better cover to remain undetected from far-visioned
animals such as antelope and deer. For
other activities, such as vision quests and signal
fires, the open exposure of the top is sought.
For this reason, the proposed project allows for
the survey of the promontory top as well as
areas down slope from the rim. The survey will
not however extend into the lower slopes or the
valley floor.
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Research Questions
Cultural Resource Assessment of Promontories
In order to address the prehistoric uses of the
promontories surveyed for this project, the fol-lowing
research questions are presented:
1. Are isolated peaks and buttes used dif-ferently
than projections along a ridgeline?
2. Are short-distance vistas overlooking
stream valleys used differently than long-dis-tance
vistas in either major river valleys or on
interfluves?
3. Do the uses of promontories change over
time? (This question basically adds a
diachronic aspect to the study and restates the
previous two questions from a temporal
perspective) .
4. What are the functional variations of
promontory use? (This question can be applied
to either diachronic or synchronic perspectives
and will subsume the largest number of vari-ables
gathered for the previous three ques-tions).
The recovery of key artifacts and feature
information having functional data sets is
paramount for addressing this research topic.
Other criteria pertinent to the research questions
include promontory accessibility and views of-fered
from the tops of promontories. In order
to facilitate differentiating the views gained
from promontories, five vista types are defined.
All the promontories surveyed are subsumed
under one or more of the vista types. These are
discussed in detail in a following section.
METHODS AND FIELD TECHNIQUES
The project surveyed a minimum of three
square miles (1975 acres) of uplands with
promontories. The size of the study area in-sured
that variability in content and context of
promontory resources would be documented.
The sample was not randomly generated but
particularistic, based on maximizing the return
for the effort expended.
An intensive pedestrian survey of 1,975 acres
of promontories was carried out as the field
work portion of the project. This was ac-complished
by nine days of field survey by two
people and one day of survey by three people.
The work was initiated during the end of
January, 1993, and was finished by mid-March,
1993.
The survey technique involved walking with
individuals spaced approximately 20 meters
apart. This spacing varied somewhat with the
topography of each promontory as many are
characterized by a lower eroded bench based on
the caprock around the perimeter, and a higher
more vegetated bench along the center. Most
of the promontories are projections, ridgelines,
and isolated buttes, the spacing used allowed for
adequate survey coverage of both benches
present on the promontories.
No testing was done on the sites located
during the survey. The thin soil and obvious
erosion affecting the sites made the possibility
of intact below subsurface features highly un-likely.
The artifacts collected during the survey
are surface finds. All isolated finds were col-lected
and a representative sample of artifacts
was collected from each site identified during
the survey. The minimum criteria for distin-guishing
a site from isolated finds is the
presence of a minimum of four artifacts within
a 100 square meter area.
Photographs, both color and black and white,
and slides were taken of sites and isolated find
localities. These photographs were taken to
best demonstrate the view achieved in relation
to the locale. In addition, photographs were
taken from several promontories to provide a
sample of views falling under the vista types
defined in the research design.
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Bartleu, Bement and Brooks
Figure 5a. Isolated butte of Vista 1.
Figure 5b. High ridge point typical of Vista 2.
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